We report here that healthy older adults show a gene expression profile in skeletal muscle consistent with mitochondrial dysfunction and associated processes such as cell death, as compared with young individuals. Furthermore, they suggest that, since their split, poplar has undergone an additional whole genome duplication, while Arabidopsis has undergone two additional genome duplications. These results are at odds with our findings. Reanalysis of Arabidopsis and poplar genomes uncovers, for both, many homologous segments with a multiplication level between five and eight, which suggests three rounds of duplications for both genomes. Noncoding RNAs of approximately 22 nucleotides in length are becoming increasingly recognized as important regulators of gene expression in animals, plants, and viruses. One class of these short RNAs, microRNAs , inhibits gene expression through specific base-paring with target mRNAs. Mature miRNAs are produced through two sequential cleavages of longer precursors, which typically contain a stem-loop structure, by the miRNA processing enzymes, Drosha and Dicer. These miRNAs combine with the Argonaut protein and other molecules to form a complex called RNA-induced silencing complex. RISCbound miRNAs bind to their target mRNA through base pairing with the seed sequence, a section of the miRNA located at the 59 end that includes 2–8 nucleotides, and either cleave the molecule or repress translation, thereby exerting post-transcriptional control of gene expression. The seed sequence is an important component in miRNAs. It is thought that these nucleotides initiate a rapid zip up of the miRNA/mRNA duplex to overcome thermal hindrance, allowing further annealing of the miRNAs to the target sites and thermodynamic stabilization of the complex. If the Arabidopsis and poplar genomes were ancient hexaploids, to which two additional genome duplications had been added, fragment multiplication of up to twelve should be expected for Arabidopsis, and up to six in poplar. The fact that there is substantial ambiguity in the dating of the duplicates in duplicated segments suggests that the most recent OTX015 large-scale duplication event reported here for Vitis might have occurred in close proximity to the Vitis speciation event. Therefore, an alternative scenario than the one presented by Jaillon et al. that we would like to put forward is shown in Figure 8. In this study we administered oxytocin intraperitoneally. Because centrally delivered oxytocin receptor antagonists block the effects of peripherally delivered oxytocin, it is likely that peripherally delivered oxytocin acts centrally , even though only a small amount of peripherally administered oxytocin crosses the blood brain barrier. In addition, peripherally administered oxytocin alters central adrenergic receptors , and brain hippocampal MRs and GRs , providing further support that peripherally delivered oxytocin has important central effects.