Although varying levels of enzyme expression can produce atypical profiles

Briefly, we used disks containing 12 different aminoglycosides for typical disk-diffusion susceptibility testing. Each known aminoglycoside-modifying enzyme, and most common combinations, yield a distinct inhibitory halo profile, while a uniform reduction of the activity of all 12 is interpreted as a result of decreased permeability. Although varying levels of enzyme expression can produce atypical profiles, the method can reliably distinguish between enzyme-mediated and permeability-mediated aminoglycoside resistance, which was the main goal here. In this study, we found antibiotic resistance to be commonplace in fecal bacteria from terrestrial and arboreal UK-371804 wildlife in Mexico. This is consistent with other studies on ATBR genes and phenotypes in bacteria collected from wildlife and wild Citarinostat settings. Overall, the great majority of the resistance phenotypes detected where to old, naturally-occurring antibiotics. However, we also found resistance to synthetic and semi-synthetic antibiotics, which are not expected to be present in environments without significant human influence, and class-1 integrons, that have also been directly linked to anthropogenic influence. In accordance with our first prediction, we found that proximity to human settlements was associated with higher levels of several ATBR parameters. Overall, ATBR was higher in howler monkeys from Los Tuxtlas than those from Uxpanapa, and traits likely to be mobile, such as enzyme-mediated G-resistance and plasmidmediated beta-lactamases, as well as class-1 integrons, were only found in howler monkeys from the more disturbed Los Tuxtlas region. However, resistance prevalence in E. coli was consistently higher in isolates from howler monkeys from Uxpanapa than those from Los Tuxtlas. Furthermore, resistance to CIP, a synthetic antibiotic, was only found in monkeys from the better-conserved region ; and ESBLs were found in howler and spider monkeys from both Los Tuxtlas and Uxpanapa.Although the differences in ATBR parameters between sites did not reach statistical significance, they show similar tendencies across most tests and we think this is probably an effect of small sample size.

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